The History of Modern Surfing

AMST 152

4 April 2022

Midterm Prompt 2: The History of Modern Surfing

The history of modern surfing begins with the ancient Hawaiians. Surfing was woven into their entire culture. Surfing was central to many activities such as water sports that improved their surfing performance and survival skills in the ocean, courting, displays of a Chief’s prowess, festivals, and ceremonies. The word for surf, fluid that covers newborn babies, to search for truth, all translates to nalu in Hawaiian. Surfing was integral to their way of life. Hawaiian subsistence farming produced such an abundance of food that they had lots of time to dedicate to surfing year-round. Around harvest time they would even have a three-month festival where work and warfare were forbidden (Neushul and Westwick 13). However, the arrival of Westerners sent their cultural activities into disarray. The newly independent and united Americans, as of 1783, had the most influence on the island. America’s profit-driven economy decimated Hawaiian surfing culture, then later revived and transformed it into an industry. Marked by military influence, surfing became notably more accessible to white individuals through the long 1950s.

Americans used Hawaii to extend their economic access to trade and in doing so contributed to the decimation of Hawaiian surfing culture. In 1778, Captain Cook arrived in Hawaii and quickly became impressed by Hawaiian surfing and culture (Neushul and Westwick 13). However, surfing was still not yet the primary attraction for Westerners. Their primary interest was profit. Hawaii was first a way station for the fur trade, until the sea otter populations were wiped out, then a resource for sandalwood, until all the sandalwood forests were cut down. The Hawaiian Chiefs made some profit from the sandalwood trade, starting Hawaii’s transition to a cash economy, and because they enjoyed the luxuries they could buy, they shifted more workers to sandalwood harvests which reduced the workers’ leisure time they could have spent surfing (Neushul and Westwick 15).

The next wave of trade was whaling. The American whalers, who dominated the trade, anchored their ships at Honolulu and turned it into a bustling port. Hawaii further transitioned to the Western market economy and labor system of working long hours, preventing more Hawaiians from going surfing. As whales became nearly extinct, whale oil substitutes were found, and the Civil War disrupted sugar distribution from the American South, the sugar trade was ushered into Hawaii. This time was also marked by a major shift in property rights. The Hawaiian royalty gave up its monopoly on land around 1850 so that commoners, and soon foreigners, could buy land. Land ownership became asymmetric. By 1900, white colonists owned four times the amount of land Hawaiians did. They used the land for pineapple and sugar plantations (Neushul and Westwick 16). All these market activities increased the number of hours that people were expected to work and were thus extremely damaging to Hawaiian surfing culture because they cut leisure time.

Worse still was the disease the foreigners brought with them, causing the Hawaiian population of some 800,000 to drop to 40,000 in about 100 years, since being discovered by Captain Cook. As Hawaiians lived with more and more of their community dying around them, a crisis of spirit took hold (Neushul and Westwick 27). Under such dire circumstances, few people were motivated to surf, and most people lost interest in surfing related festivities. Just before King Kamehameha died in 1819, he expressed doubts in their kapu, or religious taboo, system (Neushul and Westwick 18). This likely made the Christian missionary influence, which spread to Hawaii in 1820, easier for Hawaiians to adopt. The missionaries preached nudity, sex, and gambling to be sins, targeting the Hawaiian habits of “naked men and women frolicking in the water together and betting on surf contests,” with surfing becoming collateral damage (Neushul and Westwick 19). By the time the American white elites and US Marines stormed Queen Liliuokalani’s palace, taking over the government in 1893 and annexing it in 1898, the market economy, disease and religious influences contributed to the near disappearance of surfing culture (Neushul and Westwick 28). Annexation set the stage for surfing culture revival as the white elites pursued it as a leisure time activity and Hawaiians felt the need to reclaim their culture (Neushul and Westwick 32).

     Americans assisted in reviving surfing by utilizing it as a Hawaii tourist attraction. The popularization of swimming in the 1890s, the building of Hawaii’s tourism infrastructure in 1901, and already famous Jack London’s surfing article published in 1909, set the stage for “[t]he increase in tourist traffic in the 1910s, with surfing as a central attraction” (Neushul and Westwick 32, 36, 49, 56). From the time the US started gearing up at Pearl Harbor before WWI starting in 1914, Hawaii became a war zone. It stayed that way for three decades as WWII, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War came to pass. But as those wars ended and the Cold War began, in 1947, Hawaii tourism became an escape for many white, middle-class Americans (Neushul and Westwick 115). The industry especially exploded in 1950 with the advent of commercial air travel.

In 1902 the military industry hired the Hawaiian Dredging Company to deepen the Honolulu Harbor. The Dredging Company then created beaches by pumping silt out of wetlands, so that buildable land could be sold to developers. Diverting the wetlands’ water prevented it from flowing to the ocean and creating a channel of freshwater in the coastal coral, sand filling them instead, which changed the shape of the waves. The forceful disturbance of the environment started causing the sand on the beaches to disappear. Hawaii started importing sand from California. And more sand came to fill the reefs which further caused the waves to change (Neushul and Westwick 40-41, 43). As tourism increased so did the engineering of the coast; “the tourist paradise of Waikiki Beach, centered on the image of the surf lifestyle, was an elaborate fiction, engineered and maintained on behalf of the tourist economy” (Neushul and Westwick 43). The tourist industry only cared about the Hawaiians as an “authentic” selling point. The Hawaiians' voices were not heard if they rose in protest to the change in landscape.

As surfing grew in popularity, Americans began to transform the sport. Surfing became much more accessible to middle-class white Americans, many of whom became inspired to visit Hawaii which further fed Hawaii’s tourism industry. The first big change occurred with a surfer, Tom Blake, crossing paths with an aircraft designer, Gerard Vultee. When the two met, Tom Blake was experimenting with surf boards that would make him faster in paddle races and Gerard Vultee had just made the radical new Lockheed Vega 1927 airplane. Their meeting likely led to Tom Blake’s airplane inspired surfboard with “internal ribs topped by a plywood sheath” (Neushul and Westwick 71).

            Before WWII, Walter Munk, who was working for the US Army Air Corps, recognized the need for surf forecasting. Unlike surfing, the military needed smaller surf, under five feet, to have good conditions for an amphibious assault (Neushul and Westwick 83). After nearly two-thirds of military craft were lost during Operation Torch in 1942 due to the large surf, the military became convinced that Munk’s idea was one worth pursuing. The state of the waves was vital to successful amphibious warfare. Munk helped create a whole system for predicting the waves based on storms in the middle of the ocean which was refined during 1943 (Neushul and Westwick 85). 

At the end of WWII, it became clear frogmen were also crucial to warfare and the military began R&D for better underwater swimming equipment; the ubiquitous wetsuit was the result. The wetsuits were made of synthetic rubber due to the Japanese Malaysian embargo of natural rubber during WWII and for its flexible qualities, shock absorption, and ability to keep water flow down. The new idea was that reduced water flow kept you warm, not staying dry. Eventually nylon, developed in 1934, made its way into the wetsuits, making them less sticky and much easier to get on and off (Neushul and Westwick 95-96).

            Another pioneer in surfboard transformation was Robert Simmons. He was a Caltech engineering major and dropped out in 1946 (Neushul and Westwick 98). His experience in hydrodynamics and military R&D led him to experiment with surfboards based on materials and technology developed by the military (Neushul and Westwick 99). He began experimenting with polystyrene foam, an insulation material used in the military aerospace industry, to make surfboards. Because fiberglass boards were easier to seal attachments on, Tom Blake’s idea to attach fins to surfboards finally became popular (Neushul and Westwick 106). Simmons also experimented with surfboard design. He learned from Lindsay Lord’s planing hull design research, which focused on increasing the speed boats could move through water. Simmons designed radically new surfboards featuring “a flat or even concave planning surface on the bottom behind a scarfed nose; a wide, flat tail; downturned rails; and twin fins to direct water flow off the tail” as well as experimenting with shorter, six foot, boards (Neushul and Westwick 101).

The post-WWII shift towards using synthetic materials, such as no longer using wood to make boards, inadvertently brought a lot of pollution to the coasts of Hawaii and around the world. It’s harder to say surfing is about connection with the ocean when the board you stand on has no natural place in the world and will shed microplastics and harm the ecosystem.

            Each innovation in the surfing industry made surfing more accessible to the public, but discrimination kept it a white sport. Black Americans were not welcome to go swimming at public pools nor hang out at the beaches (Jefferson 156). There was one beach that was an exception, a refuge, in Santa Monica which became known by some as “The Inkwell.” This is where the legendary Black-Mexican surfer Nick Gabaldon taught himself how to surf in the 1940s (Jefferson 185). Quickly garnering a passion for the sport, he wanted to surf the excellent waves in Malibu. Gabaldon knew he would not be welcomed to the beach if he came in on land, so he paddled 12 miles north to surf Malibu. A champion of surfing, Gabaldon became well respected. Surfing provided a way for Gabaldon to overcome adversity and racism during his time. Gabaldon is an important historical surfing icon recognized for initiating the breaking down of surfing’s racial barriers (Yelland).

In the American experience, race has often been a justifying factor for “manifest destiny,” for extending the American empire even if it harms the native peoples of other lands. American culture has encouraged “otherness” between people of different skin tones and features because the wealthy oligarchs have recognized the power they gain from the weakened and disconnected masses. Division of the people makes room for an exploitative environment where the neglect of people’s well-being is allowed. The concentration of wealth in the hands of the few is inherently divisive – there can only be so many “winners.” Until American primary values shift to ones focused on well-being rather than on dollars, America will be plagued with hate of “the other” and corruption.

 

 

Works Cited

Jefferson, Alison Rose. “African American Leisure Space in Santa Monica: The Beach Sometimes Known As the "Inkwell," 1900s-1960s.” The Historical Society of Southern California, vol. 91, no. 2, 2009, pp. 155-189.

Neushul, Peter, and Peter J. Westwick. The World in the Curl: An Unconventional History of Surfing. Crown Publishers, 2013.

Yelland, Richard, director. 12 Miles North: The Nick Gabaldon Story. 2012. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4p4a69jGifw.

 

 

 

 

CSU Ethnobotany

 

Ethnobotany

 

Cleveland Sage [Native]

!!! Sage is sacred and should be treated as such. It should be honored with respect and good intention throughout the harvesting process. Be mindful that commodifying sage has led to poaching and overharvesting [1].

 

The Indigenous people burn their leaves for ceremonial smudges and fumigation. The leaves are also used to treat a cough or chest cold and to resolve issues with poison oak. Seeds are toasted and ground up to make pinole, an edible mush [2].

Fragrant leaves and flowers can be used as tea or herb [3].

Cleveland sage can also be added to pesto, beer, ice cream and baked goods [4].  

Can be chewed for pain relief [5]. Poultice of warmed leaves applied to neck for earaches and sore throats [6]. Can also aid menstruation cramps, constipation, and anxiety [1].

 

 

Aloe x (vera, coral, Cynthia giddy, short leaved) [Not Native]

Have been adopted as treatment for sunburns, minor burns, a hair moisturizer, to improve digestion and an analgesic, to relieve pain, with its anti-inflammatory and antibiotic properties [7, 8, 9]. 

 

Agave x (blue flame, fox tail) [Not Native]

Fiber is used to make clothing, fishing nets, baby cradles, slings, and sandals [Temelpak]. Leaf tips is used as needles – for clothing, basketmaking and tattooing (ashes of the burned stalks for the dye) [Abe Sanchez]. The rosette (center of the plant) is eaten like a sweet artichoke. The flowers are edible but are hardboiled to release bitterness (can also be sundried [10]). The leaves are edible at all stages, except those nearest to the ground which are bitter. The caterpillars of the agave skipper butterfly eat agave and the Indigenous people eat the caterpillars [Temelpak]. Seeds are gathered and ground into flour [10].

 

California Fushia [Native]

Indigenous people use it as a urinary tract tonic and to remedy fevers for children [11]. Leaves are used as a detergent in washing, and as dusting powder for cuts, wounds, and sores on horses. Decoction (extract obtained from boiling) of leaves is used for tuberculosis, kidney and bladder problems, and as a cathartic (purgative agent) [12].

 

Slender vervain [Not Native]

Has powerful anti-inflammatory compounds. The plant may relieve pain associated with arthritis or gout, and to treat bruises, burns, itching, and other skin conditions [13].

 

Deergrass [Native]

Critical to basket making. The Indigenous people use the flowers stalks are foundational in coiled baskets. When baskets made from deergrass stalks are immersed in water expand until they become watertight, making them ideal for water jugs and cooking baskets. Caring for these plants, and the surrounding landscape, requires carefully burning the area every 2-5 years to clear out dead material, eliminate insects, recycle plant nutrients, and thin other competitive shrubs that blocked sunlight [14]. Industrial agriculture, fire regulations and invasive species have created barriers to properly caring for the land. 

 

Limonium x [Not Native]

In Europe, it was cultivated for its medicinal uses – like in herbal tonics to treat a variety of gastrointestinal and respiratory ailments [15]. It is also edible [15, 16].

 

Jade Plant [Not Native]

It’s used as a medicinal plant in Chinese culture, by the Indigenous KhoiKhoi and other African tribes. Extract from its leaves is used to treat wounds, stomach upset, warts, and diabetes [17].

 

 

Red Hot Poker [Not Native]

In South Africa the juice of the flowers from this plant is used in cosmetics, and the root is used as a cleanser for the skin to rid it of spots and other skin eruptions [18]. The nectar-filled blooms are said to taste like honey [19].

 

10. Blue Lyme Grass [Not Native]

The leaves are used for making mats, rope, paper, and flower arranging. This grass is highly salt tolerant. Can be invasive (spreads by rhizomes) [20]. 

 

Gum rockrose [Not Native]

Oleoresin from the branches is extracted to make essential oil – used in sweets, food flavoring, chewing gum, perfume, and soap. From the leaves labdanum is extracted and used in traditional medicine and aromatherapy [21].

 

Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo, Arbutus ‘Marina’) [Not Native]

The fruit can be used as a remedy to respiratory and intestinal inflammation [22]. Infusions are rich in antioxidants and tannins and can be used as a urinary antiseptic (which helps in the prevention of recurring UTIs). Decoction of strawberry tree leaves and roots can help to combat rheumatic (musculoskeletal) pains [23].

“The fruits of the plant have been traditionally used as antiseptics, diuretics and laxatives in folk medicine, while the leaves have been used due to their diuretic, urinary antiseptic, antidiarrheal, astringent, depurative and antihypertensive properties. According to the scientific literature survey, different extracts obtained from Arbutus unedo L. have demonstrated a high pharmacological potential due to their in vitro and preclinical antibiotic, antifungal, antiparasitic, antiaggregant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, antioxidant, and spasmolytic properties” [24].

It has hard wood which can be used for firewood and making utensils [25].

 

Fortnight Lily [Not Native]

Parts of the plant are toxic to humans and animals; rarely life threatening [26]. Used in traditional medicine to treat cold, flu, headache, toothache, malaria, bruise, and various infections [27].

 

Pig’s ear [Not Native]

Can apply fleshy part of the leaf to corns and warts (heated in the oven and bisected to apply raw wet surface to area [29]) to soften and remove them. Chew a leaf to expel intestinal worms. Warmed leaf juice is used as drops for earache and tooth ache. Hot poultice to treat boils, earache, or inflammation [28].

 

15. Seaside Daisy [Native]

Fire resistant [30]. Mildly poisonous [31].

 

Black Sage [Native]

The First Peoples have a wide variety of uses for black sage including: green leaves chewed for gas pains; poultice of heated leaves applied to the ear for earache pain; decoction of plant taken for coughs, sore throat, and bronchial problems; and an infusion of green leaves were taken for heart disorders. Leaves and stalks were used as a food flavoring and parched seeds ground into a meal for food [12].

Can be used the same as white sage: use it in salads raw or in cooking. Wash until there is no longer a sticky texture, do not use if there is a sticky texture because there is a chemical found in the plant, called Thujone, which can cause epileptic shock.
Sage can be used for smudging. Native Americans, including the Tongva people, smudge the oils of plants on friends, family, the elderly. They smudge as a sign of friendship. They also smudged the sage on armor because it brought good luck and prevented bad luck [32].

 

Bear Grass [Not Native]

Nolina sp. has been identified in basketry fragments from Middle and Late Archaic contexts at Hinds Cave, Texas. Some beargrass species in the greater Southwest and adjacent Mexico were processed in various ways and eaten, and this may have also occurred (occur?) in Texas [33].

 

Heavenly Bamboo [Not Native]

Berries are highly toxic; they contain cyanide. Toxic to birds, dogs, cats and many other animals. The U.S. Department of Agriculture and most states classify Nandina domestica as a noxious, non-native, invasive weed from China and Japan [34]. The leaves, stems and fruit all serve as minor folk medicines in Chinese tradition, usually prescribed only by an experienced practitioner because of potential toxicity of alkaloids in the fruits [35]. There is a danger that an overdose can cause respiratory paralysis [36].

 

Mock Orange (Pittosporum tobira Variegated, Dwarf) [Not Native]

Contains saponins. Saponins are found in many foods, such as some beans, and although they are toxic to people they are poorly absorbed by the body and most pass straight through without any problem. They can be broken down if cooked thoroughly for a long time. Saponins are much more toxic to some creatures, such as fish, and hunting tribes have traditionally put large quantities of them in streams, lakes etc in order to stupefy or kill the fish [37].

Plants with high concentrations of saponins can be used as a type of soap. [38]

Used as an anti-malarial in Mozambique [39].

 

20. Daylily (Hemerocallis Yellow, Red) [Not Native]

Yellow Daylily (黄花)

Used in many Chinese dishes and in soap [40]. The unopened flowers, most commonly dried, are used in cooking as a flavor enhancer primarily in vegetarian dishes [41].

 

California Sycamore [Native]

Wood is used in the construction of housing. Bark and roots can be boiled to make tea, or a coffee substitute [42, 43].

 

Peach Tree [Not Native]

They have peaches!

 

African Iris [Not Native]

Used in traditional medicine to treat cold, flu, headache, toothache, malaria, bruise and various infections [44].

 

 

 

 

East African Yellowwood [Not Native]

In Sidama, Ethiopia, these trees are a part of the local peoples’ ancestral tree-based rituals [45]. The fruits are edible, though slightly toxic and should therefore be eaten sparingly, especially when they are eaten raw. But still they are cooked into jams or pies and have a mucilaginous texture with a slight sweet flavor. Some species are used as traditional medicine for the treatment of fevers, asthma, coughs, cholera, chest complaints, arthritis, rheumatism, venereal diseases, and distemper in dogs [46]. The tree is also used for carpentry, paneling, and flooring, as it is a hardy wood [47].

 

Eucalyptus (White Ironbark, Red Ironbark) [Not Native]

“…Gairabau, a Dungidau man from south-east Queensland verifies a broad array of uses for eucalypts including as gum for chewing, dying, and medicine; ash rubbed into the skin for soothing young mothers, where bees, honey and wax can be found, hollow logs for fish-traps, hard timber for weapons and utensils, bark for shelter, canoes, embalming, and containers – some species contained water, others were used to create smoke for sending signals, some species indicated an unsuitable camp-site, and others indicated the likelihood of finding koalas and possum as game. Flowering and the shedding of bark are signs for the bush calendar” [48].

 

Weeping Juniper [Not Native]

The aromatic wood is used for cedar chests and for lumber, fence posts, and fuel [49].

 

Red Kangaroo Paw [Not Native]

The Aboriginal people call Kangaroo Paw Nollamara or Kurulbrang or Yonga Marra in the local Nyoongar language [50]. They use it in preparing traditional medicine, although there have not been many released reports about it [50, 51].

The flowers have chemical properties that are antimicrobial, antioxidative, anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory. Kangaroo Paws possess starchy tuberous roots that have been a component of the diet for the Aboriginal people of Western Australia (Yellagonga region). One of the Kangaroo Paw species (A. rufus) has red roots which have been used as a dye by the Indigenous in the Northern Territory of Australia [51].

 

Common Jasmine [Not Native]

The famous aroma comes from oil in the petals and it is those petals you use to flavor your tea [52]. It is used in the treatment of depression, nervous tension, impotence, frigidity, menstrual disorders and weak digestion. The leaves contain salicylic acid. The root is used in the treatment of ringworm [53].

 

Dwarf Lily of the Nile [Not Native]

Has low severity poison characteristics. Is medicinally by native people [54]. In Xhosa and Zulu herbal medicine, a decoction of the root of (sometimes also with roots of Typha capensis [Bulrush]) is taken by women in the last three months of pregnancy to ensure a healthy child and ease childbirth. Used in a more concentrated form to induce labor. In South Sotho herbal medicine, a lotion is made from the crushed root. In Zulu herbal medicine, a hot infusion of the root of Agapanthus is taken daily as an emetic (causes vomiting), to treat serious heart disease [55].

 

 

30. Indian Hawthorn [Not Native]

Certain varieties produce berries that can be poisonous if ingested [56]. Berries are deemed edible and is used as a source of dark blue, turquoise, and purple dye [57]. Berries used to treat heart disease because they contain high levels of antioxidant flavonoids which help dilate blood vessels. Berries contain concentrated levels of pectin; can be made into jams, jellies, and sauces [58].

 

Blue Chalksticks [Not Native]

Toxic to pets and people [59]. On the island of Madeira in Portugal (where it is not native) people use the sap in the eyes for eye infections and on the skin for wounds [60]. Most commonly used to treat endocrine (diabetes), dermatological, gastrointestinal, and respiratory problems in Kerman province of southeast Iran (also not where it is native) [61].

 

Purple Queen Spiderwort [Not Native]

Juices from the stem and leaves may cause skin irritation [62]. It is known to be used to treat many diseases, including mycosal infections, venereal diseases, wounds, gastrointestinal disorders, and cancer, which may be linked to their antibacterial and antioxidant properties [63]

 

Hydrangea [Not Native]

Poisonous to pets and people [64]. Medicinal in Chinese medicine. The flowers are used to treat malaria and various heart diseases. The leaves and roots have been used as an antimalarial drug [65].

 

Red Franipani [Not Native]

Flowers are considered sacred, are used by some native people as flavor for cacao, by others as flavoring for alcoholic drinks [66]. Different parts of the plant are used traditionally to treat diseases and conditions such as leprosy, inflammation, diabetic mellitus, ulcers, wounds, itching, acne, toothache, earache, tongue cleaning, pain, asthma, constipation and antifertility [67].

 

35. Hahns Ivy [Not Native]

This plant has medium severity poison characteristics. Was used as a topical agent for its antifungal and antimicrobial properties [68].

 

Sources:

 

Temelpak, ISBN: 0-939-046-24-5

 

1.     https://www.thezoereport.com/p/the-significance-of-sage-among-native-american-nations-for-healing-health-45450613

2.     https://www.sandiego.edu/kumeyaay-garden/plants/cleveland-sage.php

3.     https://www.cnps.org/flora-magazine/bringing-native-foods-home-with-abe-sanchez-22949

4.     https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=19005

5.     https://news.usc.edu/trojan-family/close-to-home-discovering-las-healing-powers/

6.     https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwi_-deP87D3AhVSD0QIHU1lAgkQFnoECCcQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.parks.ca.gov%2Fpages%2F486%2Ffiles%2Fplantreferenceguide2014_03_03_14.pdf&usg=AOvVaw31vJIOTOkUWU-6earPFpBo

7.     https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/suppositories-yeah-native-made-indigenous-inventions-changed-world

8.     https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/5-reasons-natives-have-lustrous-locks-ancient-indigenous-hair-remedies

9.     https://uebt.org/ingredient-stories/2019/1/9/aloe-vera

10.  https://www.desertsun.com/story/life/home-garden/james-cornett/2016/07/22/agaves-prove-important-deserts-native-americans/87232418/

11.  https://www.sfbg.org/copy-of-pellaea-rotundifolia-oct

12.  https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi7nY7zhLL3AhWzDEQIHbRfDKMQFnoECEkQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mjc.edu%2Finstruction%2Fagens%2Fnative_book_5_edit_10_21_2016.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3cX7jU-QbrdwEZ2PCcFuyL

13.  https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/flowers/verbena/using-verbena-in-cooking-and-beyond.htm

14.  https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiDsefq5LH3AhU4LDQIHSViDmwQFnoECAUQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Farboretum.ucsc.edu%2Fpdfs%2Fethnobotany-webversion.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2DGKXdbs1_4a_iMXWUhiqr

15.  https://www.flower.style/flowers-we-love/limonium

16.  https://www.eattheweeds.com/tag/limonium-sinuatum/

17.  https://balconygardenweb.com/jade-plant-benefits-uses/

18.  http://herbs-treatandtaste.blogspot.com/2012/05/red-hot-pokers-tall-garden-plants-with.html

19.  https://bugwomanlondon.com/2017/12/06/wednesday-weed-red-hot-poker/

20.  https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/leymus-arenarius/

21.  https://www.botanic.co.il/en/knowledge/gum-rockrose-cistus-ladanifer-the-beautiful-flower-of-a-water-saving-garden-plant/

22.  https://www.finedininglovers.com/article/strawberry-tree-fruit-what-it-and-how-cook-it

23.  https://www.finedininglovers.com/article/strawberry-tree-fruit-what-it-and-how-cook-it

24.  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29981432/

25.  https://www.healthbenefitstimes.com/strawberry-tree/

26.  https://florgeous.com/fortnight-lily/

27.  https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/dietes/

28.  https://herbgarden.co.za/mountainherb/herbinfo.php?id=218

29.  https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwip-J-d2L_3AhVXK0QIHUrAA5AQFnoECCcQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fadc.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2Farchdischild%2F38%2F197%2F75.full.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1KDAm6gOgQek0yMzmJ5LCe

30.  https://tenthousandwildflowers.com/2019/06/19/seaside-daisy/

31.  https://wagwalking.com/condition/seaside-daisy-poisoning

32.  https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiu7vnI27_3AhXwDEQIHZ0BAlgQFnoECAcQAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fpzacad.pitzer.edu%2F~jparker%2Fteaching%2Fprojects%2Felisa.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2pVFkKAd-jtnM15g2rpbbw

33.  https://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/ethnobot/images/beargrass.html

34.  https://ar.audubon.org/news/nandina-berries-kill-birds

35.  https://www.stevenfoster.com/herbalblog/?p=447

36.  https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Nandina+domestica

37.  https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Pittosporum+tobira

38.  https://pfaf.org/user/cmspage.aspx?pageid=49

39.  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844020325895

40.  https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/hemerocallis/

41.  https://omnivorescookbook.com/pantry/dried-lily-flowers/

42.  https://ethnobotany.csusm.edu/search_details.php?plant_id=102

43.  https://thenaturecollective.org/plant-guide/details/california-sycamore/

44.  https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/dietes/

45.  https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311886.2019.1565073

46.  https://conifersociety.org/conifers/podocarpus/

47.  https://sites.redlands.edu/trees/species-accounts/fern-pine/

48.  https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/catalog/7417325

49.  https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/juniperus-scopulorum/

50.  https://www.thewetlandscentre.org.au/blog/meet-our-emblematic-native-flower-kangaroo-paw/

51.  https://ethnopharm.com/blog%2Fvideos/f/kangaroo-paw-anigozanthos-spp

52.  https://www.eattheweeds.com/tag/jasminum-officinale/

53.  https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Jasminum+officinale

54.  https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/agapanthus/

55.  http://www.biodiversityexplorer.info/plants/amaryllidaceae/agapanthus.htm

56.  https://www.housedigest.com/633879/indian-hawthorn-everything-you-should-know-before-planting/

57.  https://apps.cals.arizona.edu/arboretum/taxon.aspx?id=993

58.  https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Indian_Hawthorn_Berries_10208.php

59.  https://plantcaretoday.com/senecio-serpens.html

60.  https://www.richters.com/show.cgi?page=QandA/Medicinal/20031124-1.html

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62.  https://lotusmagus.com/purple-heart-plant/#Is_Purple_Heart_plant_edible

63.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4665499/

64.  https://plantaddicts.com/are-hydrangeas-poisonous/

65.  https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/1/2113

66.  https://www.maya-ethnobotany.org/mayan-ethno-botany-tropical-agriculture-edible-flowers-medicinal-plants-flavoring-guatemala-mexico-belize/plumeria-rubia-flor-de-mayo-frangipani-cacao-balche-aphrodisiac-fragrance.php

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68.  https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/hedera-helix/

 

 

 

 

 

Defense Production Act Effect on EVs and the Market

Econ 301

18 April 2022

Defense Production Act Effect on EVs and the Market

The US Defense Production Act (DPA), first used in 1950 during the Korean War, has been invoked by President Biden on March 31, 2022, to increase production of inputs in the large capacity battery supply chain (Defense). Large capacity batteries are essential for transitioning to a sustainable and self-sufficient energy economy, such as electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage. Invoking the DPA to encourage production of critical materials for large capacity battery production will increase the number of batteries produced. Current lower electricity prices will increase the quantity demanded for EVs. Increased EV battery production and increased quantity demanded for EVs will lead to lower EV prices.

The US will have to increase the supply of battery inputs by mining critical materials such as lithium, nickel, cobalt, graphite, and manganese. If it is not grown, it is mined. Mining has turned into a word with a lot of negative connotations, and for good reason. It is often conducted on foreign soil where the US has no control or ability to regulate the operations and a lot of human rights and environmental violations occur. Everything we consume has an origin, and it is our responsibility to make sure those materials are sourced responsibly. When they are sourced in our backyards, those operations are more likely to be conscientious of employees and their environment. We cannot continue to claim ignorance as an excuse to not take responsibility for what we are consuming. Mining is necessary to produce renewable infrastructure, and therefore must be rethought and reformed to better serve our people and our surrounding ecosystem.  

One concern is how these mining operations may affect Native American communities. Biden’s press release said they would be working in accordance with Tribal governments to meet the DPA’s goals. Also, before the official DPA declaration, the Indian Country Today newspaper released an article by the Indigenous Environmental suggesting support of the policy (Bryan).

Increased supply of battery inputs will reduce the cost of electric vehicles (EVs). By increasing domestic battery production, US manufacturers will be able to have access to a more secure supply chain. Reduced reliance on other countries will make the US less vulnerable to input shortages making it easier to keep prices down. Lithium, a primary component in batteries, is still mostly mined in South America or Australia then shipped to China for processing before it is shipped to other parts of the world for use (LaReau). Manufacturing costs would also be lower due to our increased control over our raw materials markets, and to a lesser extent, reduced shipping costs. MP Materials Corp, the only US company that produce rare earth materials for EVs, is expected to receive $6 billion in Federal assistance under the DPA (Coppola). Although this is meager compared to the $4.5 trillion that is estimated for a full renewable energy transition (E360 Digest), it communicates to the US market that EVs are a less risky investment and sets precedent for continued support.  

Consumers, however, are unlikely to benefit from these lower production costs immediately. According to Sam Abuelsamid, principal analyst on E-Mobility at Guidehouse Insights in Detroit, prices are expected to be driven down in the next 3-5 years. But producers are likely to continue selling EVs at their same sticker price as production costs decrease, increasing their profit margins (LaReau). Maintaining the relatively higher prices may help producers keep up with the high demand which will only rise further as prices fall. In the meantime, it is still a comfort to be reminded that the average driver can save about $80 a month by not having to pay for fuel if they buy an electric car (LaReau). Due to these savings, it is always most economically feasible in the long run to buy an EV when it is time to buy a new car anyways.

With lower input costs, electric cars are bound to get less expensive and thus more affordable over time. The Westport police department and the CT EV club published a financial analysis of transitioning Ford Explorer police cars over to Tesla police cars. Although their report is effectively a case study, it has important implications for other police departments and average consumers alike. Their data is based on their first Tesla Model 3 which received some first-time police customization discounts. The discounts aided in the police department’s transition but considering not every police department may have access to such a first-time discount, it is more relevant to look at their estimates for buying their “next Tesla.” Their next Tesla Model 3, compared with the Ford Explorer, is also projected to recoup its marginal cost, and save the department an additional $1,200 within its first year of operation. By year four, the next Model 3 would cost $95,800, while the Ford Explorer would cost the department $120,200 (Westport). The price comparison implies that each new Model 3 on the squad would save the department $24,400 every four years. The savings primarily breaks down between maintenance and fuel savings. Teslas, and EVs in general, also have the added benefit of being safer. Teslas have 5-star crash ratings and collision avoidance technology, and EVs do not catch fire as often as gas vehicles per miles traveled (Westport and Halvorson). Electric cars are quality substitutes for internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles and as long as gas prices are expected to remain higher than electricity prices in all states there is an incentive to purchase EVs. Although EV costs and benefits vary widely on model, location, and use, the public can construe that the financial analysis of other EV purchases is likely to be similar.

However, to encourage a faster transition, the Federal government could accelerate the impact of its DPA subsidies by also providing subsidies that specifically target the consumer market. If it is projected that EV sticker prices won’t fall in relation to their reduced price of production, the Federal government could ease that gap and make the transition to EVs faster and more equitable by incentivizing the consumer market. The lower consumer prices would increase the quantity demanded of EVs and would signal to all car manufacturers that it is worthwhile to produce more EVs. It would be beneficial for the Federal government to respond to this increase in demand as well by increasing support for renewable energy infrastructure such as retraining workers, encouraging more domestic (regulated) mining, installing solar, wind and hydro and respective energy storage, installing charging stations, and more. EV infrastructure that suits all kinds of living situations, besides just the households with a driveway, is vital in ensuring widespread EV adoption even when their upfront cost becomes more affordable. Making EVs practically and financially acceptable to all demographics would integrate US environmental goals with environmental justice (Marpillero). 

Another thing to consider is that rising energy prices may increase demand for electric cars. In 2021, the price of all energy sources, besides electricity, began to surge above the price of all goods and services. As the U.S. recovers from the pandemic, demand for goods, including energy, has increased. An overwhelming positive shift in demand has increased prices and congested the supply chain. A transitory price level rise was expected, similar to the post-Spanish flu epidemic. That is until the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which has further disrupted the supply chain. A combination of US sanctioning trade with Russia following the invasion and Americans’ related expectations of volatility in the markets brought energy prices up. Although only 8% of U.S. oil imports come from Russia, the volatility of the market still provides an opportunity for producers and distributors to raise prices (Ryssdal).

Reduced dependence on other countries for energy may combat inflation. Americans across the country are experiencing rising energy costs as the cost of fuel oil, propane, kerosene and firewood, and piped gas rise. Electricity is the only energy source that has remained about the same as prices increase on all goods and services. The western US is the exception with the rate of electricity prices rising by 20%. However, the West’s electricity price rise is still less expensive than all of the other energy source options in the region. If the US was less reliant on other countries for energy, there would be fewer variables, such as politics and shipping, that could send energy prices into such a fluctuation.

Reduced dependence on energy companies may combat inflation. Energy sources are relatively inelastic goods, people will continue to buy it even if the price increases, so producers and distributors are not incentivized to keep prices low, especially during times of economic upheaval. Utility companies, including Con Edison which services New York City, are often regulated to prevent rapid price increases. Con Edison is currently seeking permission from New York to raise their prices. Consumers need to have better control over the energy they buy and use. Transitioning to a decentralized renewable energy system would likely mitigate supply shocks and heightened price expectations and, thereby, price surges. Adding solar to the roofs of more households is a good example of a consumer-controlled, decentralized renewable energy system. If their buildings are equipped with sufficient battery storage, there would be no need to rely on the grid and be affected by the prices they set.

     If the DPA helps Americans become self-sufficient and less reliant on fossil fuels, the positive externalities could be tremendous. As demand and supply of renewable energy increases, it could help mitigate the effects of climate change, and help counteract the negative externalities of fossil fuels. Americans would save money and resources by no longer having to rely on energy sources that have been shipped around the world before use. There is freedom in domestic production and some of that freedom may finally be restored to Americans.

 

 

Works Cited

Bryan, Susan Montoya. “Climate groups call on Biden to invoke Defense Protection Act and resist short-sighted domestic fossil fuel policies.” Indian Country Today, 9 March 2022, https://indiancountrytoday.com/the-press-pool/climate-groups-call-on-biden-to-invoke-defense-protection-act-and-resist-short-sighted-domestic-fossil-fuel-policies. Accessed 17 April 2022.

Coppola, Gabrielle. “A $6 Billion Jolt for U.S. EV Supply Chains.” Bloomberg.com, 23 November 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2021-11-23/a-6-billion-jolt-for-u-s-ev-supply-chains. Accessed 17 April 2022.

Crane, Lucy. “Mining Our Way to a Low Carbon Future | Lucy Crane | TEDxTruro.” YouTube, Tedx Talks, 21 January 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aWTkiQ64u_U. Accessed 17 April 2022.

“Defense Production Act Title III Presidential Determination for Critical Materials in Larg.” Department of Defense, 5 April 2022, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2989973/defense-production-act-title-iii-presidential-determination-for-critical-materi/. Accessed 17 April 2022.

E360 Digest. “Shifting U.S. to 100 Percent Renewables Would Cost $4.5 Trillion, Analysis Finds.” Yale E360, 28 June 2019, https://e360.yale.edu/digest/shifting-u-s-to-100-percent-renewables-would-cost-4-5-trillion-analysis-finds. Accessed 17 April 2022.

Halvorson, Bengt, et al. “Fires are less frequent in Teslas and other EVs vs. gas vehicles.” Green Car Reports, 17 August 2021, https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1133254_fires-are-less-frequent-in-teslas-and-other-evs-vs-gas-vehicles. Accessed 2 May 2022.

 

LaReau, Jamie L. “Biden invokes Defense Production Act: How it will help carmakers.” Detroit Free Press, 31 March 2022, https://www.freep.com/story/money/cars/2022/03/31/biden-cold-war-act-cars/7221303001/. Accessed 17 April 2022.

Marpillero, Andrea. “How electric cars can advance environmental justice: By putting low-income and racially diverse drivers behind the wheel.” The Conversation, 21 May 2021, https://theconversation.com/how-electric-cars-can-advance-environmental-justice-by-putting-low-income-and-racially-diverse-drivers-behind-the-wheel-158380. Accessed 17 April 2022.

Nedelea, Andrei. “Study: Hybrids, ICE Cars Far More Likely Than EVs To Catch Fire.” InsideEVs, 18 January 2022, https://insideevs.com/news/561549/study-evs-smallest-fire-risk/. Accessed 17 April 2022.

Ryssda, Kai. “An oil shock? In this economy?” Marketplace, 8 March 2022, https://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace/an-oil-shock-in-this-economy/.

Uteuova, Aliya, and Andrew Witherspoon. “What is causing US utility bills to rise and will it persist in warmer months?” The Guardian, 13 March 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/mar/13/us-utility-bills-energy-prices-increase. Accessed 17 April 2022.

“Westport Police Tesla Squad Car Saves Money, Improves Performance, Environmentally Friendly | News.” Westport, CT, 22 July 2021, https://www.westportct.gov/Home/Components/News/News/8926/35?backlist=%2fgovernment%2fselectman-s-office. Accessed 17 April 2022.